In 1796, the British rural doctor, Edward Jenner, conducted a scientific study on the prevention of smallpox in humans and demonstrated that vaccination with vaccinia virus could prevent smallpox, from which the terms vaccinology and immunology originated ( Negahdaripour et al., 2017b). Vaccination is a major preventive measure designed to establish specific immune defenses (i.e., antibody or cellular immunity) to protect individuals from infectious diseases. This review primarily discusses the current and prospective applications of these built-in adjuvants (i.e., biological carriers) to provide some references for the future design of epitope-based vaccines. When designing epitope vaccines, the following types of built-in adjuvants are typically considered: (1) pattern recognition receptor ligands (i.e., toll-like receptors) (2) virus-like particle carrier platforms (3) bacterial toxin proteins and (4) novel potential delivery systems (e.g., self-assembled peptide nanoparticles, lipid core peptides, and polymeric or inorganic nanoparticles). However, epitope vaccines are associated with limited immunity, which can be overcome by conjugating antigenic epitopes with built-in adjuvants (e.g., some carrier proteins or new biomaterials) with special properties, including immunologic specificity, good biosecurity and biocompatibility, and the ability to vastly improve the immune response of epitope vaccines. Several studies have shown that epitope vaccines exhibit substantial advantages over conventional vaccines.
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